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{{Infobox_Philosopher |
#REDIRECIONAMENTO [[Baruch Espinoza]]
  <!-- Scroll down to edit this page -->
  <!-- Philosopher Category -->
  region          = Western Philosophers |
  era            = [[17th-century philosophy]] |
  color          = #B0C4DE |
 
  <!-- Image and Caption -->
  image_name      = Spinoza.jpg |
  image_caption  = Benedictus de Spinoza |
 
  <!-- Information -->
  name            = Benedictus de Spinoza |
  birth            = [[November 24]], [[1632]] ([[Amsterdam]], [[Netherlands]]) |
  death            = [[February 21]], [[1677]] ([[The Hague]], [[Netherlands]]) |
  school_tradition = [[Continental rationalism]], founder of [[Spinozism]] |
  main_interests  = [[Ethics]], [[Epistemology]], [[Metaphysics]] |
  influences      = [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], [[René Descartes|Descartes]], [[Avicenna]], [[Maimonides]], [[Nicholas of Cusa]] |
  influenced      = [[David Conway|Conway]], [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], [[Donald Davidson (philosopher)|Davidson]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], [[Gilles Deleuze|Deleuze]],  [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] |
  notable_ideas    = [[Pantheism]] |
}}
 
'''Benedictus de Spinoza''' ([[November 24]], [[1632]] &ndash; [[February 21]], [[1677]]), was named ''Baruch Spinoza'' by his synagogue elders and known as ''Bento de Espinosa'' or ''Bento d'Espiñoza'' in his native [[Amsterdam]]. He is considered one of the great [[continental rationalism|rationalists]] of [[17th-century philosophy]] and, by virtue of his [[magnum opus]] the ''[[Ethics (book)|Ethics]]'', one of the definitive ethicists. His writings, like those of his fellow rationalists, reveal considerable mathematical training and facility. Spinoza was a lens crafter by trade, an exciting engineering field at the time because of great discoveries being made by telescopes. The full impact of his work only took effect sometime after his death and after the publication of his ''Opera Posthuma''. He is now seen as having prepared the way for the 18th century [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], and as a founder of modern [[biblical criticism]].
 
==Life==
Born to a great family of [[Sephardic Jew]]s, among the [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Portuguese Jews]] of Amsterdam.  He had an orthodox Jewish upbringing, however through his critical, curious nature he would soon come into conflict with the Jewish community. He initially gained infamy for his positions of [[pantheism]] and [[neutral monism]], as well as the fact that his ''Ethics'' was written in the form of postulates and definitions, as though it were a [[geometry]] treatise.  In the summer of [[1656]], he was [[Excommunication|excommunicated]] because of [[apostasy]] from the Jewish community for his claims that [[God]] is the mechanism of nature and the universe, having no personality, and that the [[Bible]] is a metaphorical and allegorical work used to teach the nature of God, both of which were based on a form of Cartesianism (see [[René Descartes]]). Following his excommunication, he adopted the first name Benedictus (the [[Latin]] equivalent of his given name, Baruch). The terms of his excommunication were quite severe; see Kasher and Biderman (19nn).
 
After his excommunication, he lived and worked for a while in the school of [[Franciscus van den Enden]], who taught him Latin and may have introduced him to modern philosophy. In this period Spinoza also became acquainted with several Collegiants, members of a non-dogmatic and interdenominational sect with tendencies towards Rationalism. By the beginning of the 1660s Spinoza's name became more widely known, and eventually [[Leibniz]] and [[Henry Oldenburg]] paid him visits. He corresponded with the latter for the rest of his life. Spinoza's first publication was his ''Principles of Cartesian Philosophy'', a work that introduced some of his own ideas. In 1665 he notified Oldenburg that he had started to work on a new book, the ''[[Theologico-Political Treatise]]'', published in 1670.
 
Since the public reactions to the anonymously published ''[[Theologico-Political Treatise]]'' turned unfavourable to his brand of [[Rene Descartes|Cartesianism]], Spinoza abstained from publishing more of his works. Wary and independent, he wore a [[signet ring]] engraved with his [http://www.mtsu.edu/~rbombard/RB/Images/bds1.jpg initials, a rose and the word "caute"] (Latin for caution). The ''Ethics'' and all other works, apart from the ''Principles of Cartesian Philosophy'' and the ''[[Theologico-Political Treatise]]'', were published after his death in the ''Opera Postuma'' edited by his friends. <!-- Where did he die? There's hardly any information about where he lived, who he worked or colloborated with... -->
 
He lived in [[Amsterdam]] and the surrounding area all of his life, earning a comfortable living from lens-grinding.  In [[1676]], Leibniz and Spinoza met at [[The Hague]] for a discussion of his principal philosophical work, The ''Ethics'', which had just been completed.  He was also supported by small, but regular donations from close friends.  He died in [[1677]], a premature death which was possibly the result of breathing in glass dust from the lenses he grinded. (Lucas, 1960).
 
==Overview of his philosophy==
Known as both the "greatest Jew" and the "greatest Atheist", Spinoza contended that God and Nature were two names for the same reality, namely the single [[substance]] (meaning "to stand beneath" rather than "matter") that underlies the universe and of which all lesser "entities" are actually modes or modifications.  The argument for this single substance runs something as follows:
 
:1. Substance exists and cannot be dependent on anything else for its existence.
:2. No two substances can share an attribute.
::Proof: If they share an attribute, they would be identical.  Therefore they can only be individuated by their modes.  But then they would depend on their modes for their identity.  This would have the substance being dependent on its mode, in violation of premise 1.  Therefore, two substances cannot share the same attribute.
:3. A substance can only be caused by something similar to itself (something that shares its attribute).
:4. Substance cannot be caused.
::Proof: Something can only be caused by something which is similar to itself, in other words something that shares its attribute.  But according to premise 2, no two substances can share an attribute.  Therefore substance cannot be caused.
:5. Substance is infinite.
::Proof: If substance were not infinite, it would be finite and limited by something.  But to be limited by something is to be dependent on it.  However, substance cannot be dependent on anything else (premise 1), therefore substance is infinite.
:Conclusion: There can only be one substance.
::Proof: If there were two infinite substances, they would limit each other.  But this would act as a restraint, and they would be dependent on each other.  But they cannot be dependent on each other (premise 1), therefore there cannot be two substances.
 
Spinoza contended that "Deus sive Natura" ("God or Nature") was a being of infinitely many attributes, of which extension and thought were two. His account of the nature of reality, then, seems to treat the [[physics|physical]] and [[mind|mental]] worlds as two different, parallel "subworlds" that neither overlap nor interact.  This formulation is a historically significant [[panpsychism|panpsychist]] solution to the [[mind-body problem]] known as [[neutral monism]].
 
Spinoza was a thoroughgoing [[determinism|determinist]] who held that absolutely everything that happens occurs through the operation of [[necessity]]. For him, even human behaviour is fully determined, freedom being our capacity to know we are determined and to understand ''why'' we act as we do. So freedom is not the possibility to say "no" to what happens to us but the possibility to say "yes" and fully understand why things should necessarily happen that way. By forming more "adequate" ideas about what we do and our emotions or affections, we become the adequate cause of our effects (internal or external), which entails an increase in activity (versus passivity). This means that we become both more free and more like God, as Spinoza argues in the Scholium to Prop. 49, Part II.
 
Spinoza's philosophy has much in common with [[Stoicism]] in as much as both philosophies sought to fulfil a therapeutic role by instructing people how to attain happiness (or eudaimonia, for the Stoics). However, Spinoza differed sharply from the Stoics in one important respect: he utterly rejected their contention that [[reason]] could defeat [[emotion]]. On the contrary, he contended, an emotion can be displaced or overcome only by a stronger emotion. For him, the crucial distinction was between active and passive emotions, the former being those that are rationally understood and the latter those that are not. He also held that knowledge of true causes of passive emotion can transform it to an active emotion, thus anticipating one of the key ideas of [[Sigmund Freud]]'s [[psychoanalysis]].
 
Some of Spinoza's philosophical positions are:
* God is the natural world and has no personality.
* The natural world is infinite.
* There is no real difference between good and evil.
* Everything must necessarily happen the way that it does. Therefore, there is no free will.
* Everything done by humans and other animals is excellent and divine.
* All rights are derived from the State.
* Animals can be used in any way by people for the benefit of the human race.
 
==Ethical philosophy==
Encapsulated at the start in his ''Treatise on the Improvement of the Understanding'' (''Tractatus de intellectus emendatione'') is the core of Spinoza's ethical philosophy, what he held to be the true and final good. Spinoza held a [[relativism|relativist's]] position, that nothing is good or bad, except to the extent that it is subjectively perceived to be by the individual.  Things are only good or evil in respect that humanity sees it desirable to apply these conceptions to matters.  Instead, Spinoza believes in his deterministic universe that, "All things in nature proceed from certain necessity and with the utmost perfection".  Therefore, no things happen by chance in Spinoza's world, and [[reason]] does not work in terms of contingency.  In the universe anything that happens comes from the essential nature of objects, or of God and nature.  Perfection therefore, is abound according to Spinoza.  If circumstances are seen as unfortunate it is only because of our inadequate conception of reality.  Spinoza's point is, there is nothing inherent in any thing, to make it either good or bad. From this he concluded the ethical ventures of other philosophers had been mistaken.
 
Acts such as [[altruism]] and [[piety]] should be made by the "mere guidance of reason".  Spinoza's system also teaches that the knowledge of [[God#The Ultimate|God]] induces us "to do those things which love and piety persuade us". For instance, one person may find roasted peanuts tasty and so for her roasted peanuts are good. But another person may be allergic to nuts and so for him peanuts are bad. Spinoza's point is, there is nothing inherent in any thing, like a nut, to make it either good or bad. From this he concluded the ethical ventures of other philosophers had been mistaken.
 
==The Pantheism Controversy (Pantheismusstreit)==
In [[1785]], [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi]] published a condemnation of Spinoza's [[pantheism]]. Jacobi claimed that Spinoza's doctrine was pure materialism, because all [[Nature]] and [[God]] are said to be nothing but extended [[substance]]. This, for Jacobi, was the result of [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] [[rationalism]] and it would finally end in absolute [[atheism]]. [[Moses Mendelssohn]] disagreed with Jacobi, saying that there is no actual difference between [[theism]] and [[pantheism]]. The entire issue became a major intellectual and religious concern for [[Europe]]an [[civilization]] at the time.
 
==Modern relevance==
[[Albert Einstein]] said that Spinoza was the philosopher who had most influenced his worldview ([[Weltanschauung]]). Spinoza equated God (infinite substance) with Nature, and Einstein, too, believed in an impersonal deity.  His desire to understand Nature through physics can be seen as contemplation of God. [[Arne Næss]], the father of the [[deep ecology]] movement, acknowledged drawing much inspiration from the works of Spinoza.
 
In the late twentieth century, there was a great increase in [[philosophical]] interest in Spinoza in [[Europe]], often from a [[left-wing]] and [[Marxist]] perspectives. Notable philosophers [[Gilles Deleuze]], [[Antonio Negri]] and [[Étienne Balibar]] have each written books on Spinoza. Other philosophers heavily influenced by Spinoza were [[Constantin Brunner]] and [[John David Garcia]]. [[Stuart Hampshire]] wrote a major English language study of Spinoza, though [[H. H. Joachim]]'s work is equally valuable.
 
Spinoza's portrait featured prominently on the 1000 [[Dutch gulden]] [[banknote]], [[legal tender]] in the [[Netherlands]] until the [[euro]] was introduced in [[2002]].
 
The highest and most prestigious scientific prize of the Netherlands is named the ''Spinozapremie'' (Spinoza reward).
 
==References==
 
===Works cited===
 
* Lucas, P. G., "Some Speculative and Critical Philosophers", p. 119 in I. Levine (ed.), ''Philosophy'', Odhams, London, 1960.
 
==Bibliography==
===By Spinoza===
*''Short Treatise on God, Man and His Well-Being''.
*1662. ''On the Improvement of the Understanding''. [http://gutenberg.net/etext/1016 Project Gutenberg]
*1663. ''Principles of Cartesian Philosophy''.
*1670. ''Tractatus Theologico-Politicus'' (A Theologico-Political Treatise)
**[http://gutenberg.net/etext/989 Project Gutenberg: Part 1]
**[http://gutenberg.net/etext/990 Part 2]
**[http://gutenberg.net/etext/991 Part 3]
**[http://gutenberg.net/etext/992 Part 4]
*1677. ''Ethica Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata'' ([[Ethics (book)|The Ethics]]) [http://gutenberg.net/etext/3800 Project Gutenberg.] [http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/f_spinoza.html Another translation, by Jonathan Bennett.]
*1677. ''Hebrew Grammar''.
 
===About Spinoza===
* [[Etienne Balibar]], 1985. ''Spinoza et la politique'' ("Spinoza and politics") Paris: [[University Presses of France|PUF]].
* [[Gilles Deleuze]], 1968. ''Spinoza et le problème de l'expression''. Trans. "Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza".
* -----, 1970. ''Spinoza - Philosophie pratique''. Transl. "Spinoza: Practical Philosophy".
* Della Rocca, Michael. 1996. ''Representation and the Mind-Body Problem in Spinoza''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509562-6
*Garrett, Don, ed., 1995. ''The Cambridge Companion to Spinoza''. Cambridge Uni. Press.
* Gatens, Moira, and Lloyd, Genevieve, 1999. ''Collective imaginings : Spinoza, past and present''. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16570-9, ISBN 0-415-16571-7
*Gullan-Whur, Margaret, 1998. ''Within Reason: A Life of Spinoza''. Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-05046-X
*Lloyd, Genevieve, 1996. ''Spinoza and the Ethics''. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10781-4, ISBN 0-415-10782-2
*Kasher, Asa, and Shlomo Biderman. "[http://www.tau.ac.il/~kasher/pspin.htm Why Was Baruch de Spinoza Excommunicated?]"
*[[Arthur O. Lovejoy]], 1936. "Plenitude and Sufficient Reason in Leibniz and Spinoza" in his ''The [[Great Chain of Being]]''. Harvard University Press: 144-82 (ISBN 0674361539). Reprinted in Frankfurt, H. G., ed., 1972. ''Leibniz: A Collection of Critical Essays''. Anchor Books.
*[[Pierre Macherey]], 1977. ''Hegel ou Spinoza'', Maspéro (2nd ed. La Découverte, 2004).
* ------, 1994-98. ''Introduction à l'Ethique de Spinoza''. Paris: PUF.
* Matheron, Alexandre, 1969. ''Individu et communauté chez Spinoza'', Paris: [[Les Éditions de Minuit|Minuit]].
*Nadler, Steven, 1999. ''Spinoza: A Life''. Cambridge Uni. Press. ISBN 0-521-55210-9
*[[Antonio Negri]], 1991. ''The Savage Anomaly: The Power of Spinoza's Metaphysics and Politics''. [[Michael Hardt]], trans., University of Minnesota Press. Preface, in French, by Gilles Deleuze, available [http://multitudes.samizdat.net/article.php3?id_article=1355 here].
 
==See also==
*[[Affect (philosophy)|Affect]]
*[[Spinozism]]
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[Contributions to liberal theory]]
*[[Voorburg]]
*[[Plane of immanence]]
*[[The Treatise of the Three Impostors]]
 
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisourcelang|nl|Baruch Spinoza|Baruch Spinoza}}
{{commons|Baruch de Spinoza}}
*[http://rwmeijer.ws/spinoza/ The Ethics] - Split-screen Latin/English or Latin/French
*[http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/ The Ethics]A READABLE version with all the content still there.
*[http://cf.uba.uva.nl/en/digilib/philosophy/spinheng.html Vereniging Het Spinozahuis]
*[http://www.spinoza.net The Spinoza Net]
*[http://bdsweb.tripod.com Spinoza and Spinozism] - BDSweb
*[http://www.philosophyarchive.com/text.php?era=1600-1699&author=Spinoza&text=A%20Theologico-Political%20Treatise A Theologico-Political Treatise ] -English Translation
*[http://hyperspinoza.caute.lautre.net HyperSpinoza]
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/s/spinoza.htm Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Spinoza]
*[http://atheisme.free.fr/Biographies/Spinoza_e.htm Biography of Spinoza]
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza/ Spinoza]
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza-psychological/ Spinoza's Psychological Theory]
 
* {{gutenberg author| id=Benedictus+de+Spinoza | name=Baruch Spinoza}}
*[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0151005575/103-8948210-4235827?v=glance&n=283155 Damasio: Looking for Spinoza]
 
{{Persondata
|NAME=Spinoza, Baruch
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Spinoza, Benedictus de; Espinosa,  Bento de; d'Espiñoza, Bento
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Dutch philosopher
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[November 24]], [[1632]] &ndash; [[February 21]], [[1677]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Amsterdam]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[November 24]], [[1632]] &ndash; [[February 21]], [[1677]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
 
[[Category:1632 births|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:1677 deaths|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:Dutch philosophers|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:Early modern philosophers|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:Rationalists|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:Jewish Portuguese history|Spinoza, Baruch]]
 
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